The Pharmaceutical Business   4 of 13  
     2. Making pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical manufacturers take raw materials and process them into finished medicines ready for the consumer. There are three major stages:

1 Research and Development
2 Primary manufacture – making the active ingredient
3 Secondary manufacture – formulating a medicine
The main stages
Research and Development lasts up to twelve years from initial discovery to regulatory approval. During this time, thousands of compounds are screened to find out if they can be used in a new medicine. They are then tested and trialled before they are manufactured.

In the primary manufacturing stage, raw materials are combined and processed to make the active ingredient that goes into a medicine. This can involve simple mixing, more complex chemical reactions or biotechnology. The active ingredient has to be purified, dried, milled and blended before it passes to the next stage. The active ingredient will usually make up only a very small proportion of the medicine. Most of the bulk is added during secondary manufacture.

In secondary manufacture, the active ingredient is turned into a medicine by mixing it with other substances which, for example, make tablets the appropriate size, colour and taste and give them the right physical characteristics. These are called excipients and they make up most of the volume of a medicine. Although they have no active role in treating a patient, they allow the active ingredient to be made into an effective medicine.
Interactive graphic of dosage forms
Figure 12. Medicines come in many different formulations.
Different formulations
There are a number of ways of formulating a medicine. For example:
The formulation chosen for a particular medicine will depend upon factors such as:
• how easy it is to take or use
• how quickly a medicine needs to get into the body
• where it has to work in the body
Patches
Some medicines are held in patches which are stuck onto the skin. The medicine is absorbed into the body slowly and continuously. Hormone treatment can be given by skin patches.
Ointments, creams and powders
These are all applied directly to the skin in the affected area. They are called topical medicines. Antiseptics and antifungals (e.g. treatment for athlete’s foot) may be used in this way.
Injections
Injections are a good way to deliver medicines to the place where they're needed. A medicine can be injected to different parts of the skin and other tissues. Medicines can also be injected directly into the bloodstream.
Emergency antidotes (e.g. antidotes to snake venom) are injected directly into the bloodstream for speed. Injections are also used for most types of immunisation.
Tablets and capsules
Tablets and capsules are useful because the dose is easily controlled and they can be stored without deteriorating. Some tablets are sucked or dispersed in water and swallowed (e.g. soluble aspirin). Gelatin capsules dissolve easily in the stomach, releasing the medicine which is absorbed from the gut into the bloodstream. Stomach acid destroys some medicines, so there are tablets coated with a substance which stops them dissolving until they reach the intestines.
Inhalers
Medicines can be breathed in using an inhaler. This delivers a fixed dose of medicine as a fine spray. The medicine is breathed straight into the lungs. People who have asthma use inhalers to get relief from breathing difficulties.
Syrups
Syrups are measured into a spoon and can be swallowed easily. They are often preferred by children, especially if they taste nice!
Roll your mouse over the different formulations in the picture to find out more about them.
Suppositories
These tablets deliver medicine directly to the lower intestine and then into the bloodstream.